15 Tips for Getting Hired After the College Graduation

15 Tips for Getting Hired After the College Graduation You’re in an exciting modern lifestyle and looking to understand getting recruited after the school graduation. Let’s investigate 15 hints you’ll be extraordinarily happy you ran over. #1 Job Search Begins on Day 1 On the off chance that you don’t have an occupation, at that point landing one is your position. What’s school for? Finding a new line of work, which is reality implies bringing in cash. Most by far of undergrads are wagering (with some genuine influence) on the possibility that their training is going to rise to a great job not far off. You should begin searching for your optimal vocation on the principal day of your rookies year. Each move you make ought to be towards that objective. On the off chance that you don’t recognize what the objective is, at that point you should procrastinate on school for a year and†¦get a vocation. Begin looking at this moment. Heres the rundown of the best summer occupations which can be a decent beginning on the off chance that you need cash immediately. #2 Create on Online Presence On the off chance that you don't have an online nearness, even a free ultra-crude one, at that point jump on it. No, you don't need to contribute huge amounts of time. Essentially set up a free blog and a Facebook page. Start there. Online you’re associated with everybody and everything. Now you have to have one, and having the option to arrange online is a significant resource. #3 Show Off Your Stuff Don’t be bashful, however don’t be crazy either. There’s no an ideal opportunity to squander. It’s like passing up on the chance to meet a stunning individual since you were modest. Life’s excessively short. Make your turn and let your aptitudes sell themselves. #4 Pursue Internship with Clarity Temporary positions are both unfathomably advantageous and hyper-serious by and large. Don’t flounder in hopelessness for a year seeking after that perfect entry level position. Give it your earnest attempts, yet realize when to trade out your chips for all the more promptly accessible profession ways. #5 Apply Selectively Don’t shotgun your way to deal with employment forms. Get your work done and just apply to those positions or organizations who you can be of the best assistance to. #6 Hire a Freelancer to Create Your Resume Don’t even consider winging either your hard or delicate duplicate resume. It’s just about an outright exercise in futility and you’ll be cutting off ties as you go. Rather, spend perhaps $50-$100 to find support with your resume from an expert essayist. Preferably, one who spends significant time recorded as a hard copy resumes for your particular profession objectives (medical attendants, attorneys, acupuncturists and so forth.). #7 You’re Always Networking 100% of the time, if you’re conscious and breathing you’re organizing. It’s a piece of life. The thing that matters is that once you’re mindful of that, you would then be able to all the more likely position yourself to profit by it. #8 Fix Your Attitude First In the event that you’re life’s not going so well and the quest for new employment is leaving you with next to nothing, the primary things you most likely need to fix are your mentality and air. #9 Come Prepared Don’t appear ill-equipped if the goal could introduce potential systems administration openings. Moreover, in the event that you go to a meeting, know it all there is to know so that you’re bound to dazzle. #10 Develop a Personal Brand Regardless of what your identity is, or what you contemplated, there are presumably loads of individuals with this information. The ONLY thing that truly separates you from different up-and-comers is you. #11 Aim for Experience (Wisdom) On the off chance that you’re alive or more water, at that point focus on the experience employments or positions can give you. Not the compensation. In today’s world outcomes and experience are worth 100 x what a confirmation or degree is worth on the open employment advertise. #12 Sport an Entrepreneurial Mindset It’s a time of the business person. It truly is! The #1 rule of the enterprising outlook is that behind each issue or issue is a chance. The stunt is having the option to spot opportunity and necessities, and afterward making a move. #13 Compile an Asset List Plunk down and make sense of all that you bring to the table the world. Record everything, every thing, regardless of how straightforward. You’ll find that your instruction and the limited quantity of things you thought were your solitary resources, are just a little bit. #14 Optimize Your Efficiency Recollect the 80/20 standard. 20% of what you do each day is liable for 80% of the outcomes you experience. Do you have spare time? What else would you be able to do? What would you be able to accomplish a greater amount of in less time? #15 Throw Conventional Approaches Out the Window Not out and out, simply perceive that because of incredible innovative and financial reasons, everything is evolving. This incorporates what people look like for work, however how they get recruited. Use everything available to you in light of the fact that in reality excelling is difficult. Things being what they are, it should, okay change this rundown or add to it in any case? What different tips would you provide for the graduates that could truly utilize a strong check and a compensating profession?

Africana studies final assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Africana considers last task - Essay Example From there on, the European forces attempted to make a range of prominence for themselves in Africa. These European forces utilized different strategies to obtain these settlements of which were lie to the Africans. They included marking of bargains among African and Europeans, which were obscure and were to the upsides of Europeans. They utilized of power, which utilized military occupation, for instance, Ashanti by British, use preachers and joint effort. Financial, social and political reasons drove procurement of Africa (Shreuder 90). In the first place, Africa went under colonization for financial reasons as a possibility for abrogation of slave exchange. Europe needed to have an elective exchange item from Africa. Africa was plentiful in minerals, rich terrains for agribusiness and modest work. Agrarian unrest and industrialization of the mid-nineteenth century made European force reexamine about Africa. They expected to expand wellsprings of crude materials for their developing businesses. Africa was a rich wellspring of crude materials including iron mineral, copper, palm oil, elastic and cotton. Besides, these European forces needed expanded markets for their fabricated products. As outcome, they expected to grow their market in Africa. Furthermore, they needed to have an offer in African exchange gold, ivory and slaves. A portion of the European forces built up repayments and began money crop cultivating and domesticated animals keeping, for instance, the Dutch settled in Kenyan good countries. Other than th e coast, they started to build up exchange contacts with significant distance merchants from the inside where they traded things of exchange. Hence, every European force needed to make sure about or protect their business inspirations by practicing political control the over wellsprings of crude material and markets (Okoth 44). Europeans attacked Africa for helpful reasons. Other than spreading Christianity, preachers came to Africa to set up schools as intends to humanize Africans and to give wellbeing or clinical

Social Cognition in Psychology

Social Cognition in Psychology Theories Social Psychology Print Social Cognition in Psychology The Way We Think About Others By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on March 16, 2019 Lisa-Blue / E / Getty Images More in Theories Social Psychology Behavioral Psychology Cognitive Psychology Developmental Psychology Personality Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology In This Article Table of Contents Expand Definition Development Research Cultural Differences Criticism View All Back To Top Social cognition is a sub-topic of social psychology that focuses on how people process, store, and apply information about other people and social situations. It focuses on the role that cognitive processes play in our social interactions. The way we think about others plays a major role in how we think, feel, and interact with the world around us. Defining Social Cognition How exactly do psychologists define social cognition? While there is no single definition, there are some common factors that many experts have identified as being important. Social cognition involves: The processes involved in perceiving other people and how we come to know about the people in the world around us.It involves the study of these mental processes that involved in perceiving, remembering, thinking about, and attending to the other people in our social world.Psychologists are interested in why we attend to certain information about the social world. how this information is stored in memory, and how it is then used to interact with other people.It is not simply a topic within social psychology - it is an approach to studying any subject with social psychology. Using a social-cognitive perspective, researchers can study a wide range of topics including attitudes, person-perception, prejudice, stereotypes, self-concept, discrimination, persuasion, decision-making, and other areas. The Role of Social Cognition For example, imagine that you are getting ready to go on a blind date. Not only do you worry about the impression and signals that you are sending to the other person, you are also concerned with interpreting the signals given by the other individual. How do you form an impression of this person? What meaning do you read into the other persons behavior? This is just one example of how social cognition influences a single social interaction, but you can probably think of many more examples from your daily life. We spend a considerable portion of every day interacting with others, which is why an entire branch of psychology formed to help understand how we feel, think and behave in social situations. The Development of Social Cognition Developmental psychologists also study how social cognition develops over the course of childhood and adolescence. As children grow, they become more aware not only of their own feelings, thoughts, and motives but also of the emotions and mental states of others. As this awareness increases, children become more adept at understanding how others are feeling, knowing how to respond in social situations, engaging in prosocial behaviors, and taking the perspective of others. While there are many different theories that look at how social cognition develops, one of the most popular focuses on the work of the psychologist Jean Piaget. According to Piaget, a childs cognitive development goes through a series of stages. During the earliest stages of development, children are very egocentric. They see the world from their own perspective and struggle to think about how other people may view the world.As children grow older, children become increasingly adept at perspective-taking and have an increased ability to think about how and why people act the way they do in social situations. More recently, research has provided evidence that children develop the ability to think about the perspectives of other people at an earlier age than Piaget previously believed.  Even young preschoolers exhibit some ability to think about how other people might view a situation. One of the most important develops in the early emergence of social cognition is the growth of a theory of mind. A theory of mind refers to a persons ability to understand and think about the mental states of other people. It is the emergence of a theory of mind that is critical to being able to consider the thoughts, motives, desires, needs, feelings, and experiences that other people may have. Being able to think about how these mental states can influence how people act is critical to forming social impressions and explaining how and why people do the things that they do. Questions About Social Cognition So what are some of the different questions related to social cognition that researchers are interested in understanding? Our perceptions of others play such an important role in how we forge relationships, how we interact with others, how we treat others, and how others treat us. Some of the topics that psychologists are interested in when it comes to social cognition include: How do we interpret other peoples feelings and emotions? How do we figure out what they are thinking or feeling? What cues or indicators do we use to make these assumptions?What influence do our thoughts have on our feelings?How do we develop attitudes? What role do these attitudes play in our social lives?How is self-concept formed and how does it influence our relationships with others?What mental processes influence person perception, or how we form impressions of other people? Cultural Differences Social psychologists have also found that there are often important cultural differences in social cognition. When looking at a social situation, any two people may have wildly different interpretations. Each person brings a unique background of experiences, knowledge, social influences, feelings, and cultural variations. Some researchers have found that there are also collective, cultural influences that can affect how people interpret social situations. The same social behavior in one cultural setting may have a very different meaning and interpretation if it was to take place in another culture. As people interpret behavior, extract meaning from the interaction, and then act based upon their beliefs about the situation, they are then further reinforcing and reproducing the cultural norms that influence their social cognitions. Possible Shortcomings One criticism of some of the research on social cognition suggests that it is too focused on individualistic behavior. Because the topic itself is so social, some suggest that many of the information-processing models that have traditionally been used to understand the cognitive processes behind social cognition are too limited. Focusing more on the collective and interactive aspects of human thought may provide a better understanding of how people think about and understand social behavior.

A Case Study of a First-grade Student - 1344 Words

This case study consists of a first grade student, Adam, who displays minimal social interaction and exhibits patterns of disruptive behavior in the form of tantrums. Although he has deficits in communication and social skills, Adam excels in completing certain tasks that are designed for upper level students. After reviewing the symptoms and the reactions he exhibits, I believe the student has Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). At this time, I would choose treatment options that implement behavior modification techniques. I believe this is the correct form of treatment due to his behaviors not being severe enough to be treated with medication. He is not exhibiting out of control conduct and displays some social skills. Behavior therapy teaches the person that through certain techniques they can minimize their symptoms. Side effects from medication can have serious effects on a child’s developing brain, â€Å"’Autistic children have a broader range of side effects than do non-autistic individuals,’ Dr. Elliott says. ‘I often think of them as having a â€Å"raw brain† effect. Its like having sunburn; things that normally wouldnt affect you, like a pat on the back, do. You have to be more careful getting started’† (Arky, 2012). These medications can have long-term side effects if not taken or monitored correctly. Based on the condition of the patient, I believe behavioral modification techniques would be the most effective treatment in this case. When dealing with children that areShow MoreRelated A Comparison of Schools in the U.S. and Japan Essay1283 Words   |  6 PagesJapan In Japanese schools, from elementary schools to universities, teachers direct what students should do or how they should be. Students follow the school rules and the directions of teachers. 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Biography of Francisco Madero, Led Mexican Revolution

Francisco I. Madero (October 30, 1873–February 22, 1913) was a reformist politician and writer and president of Mexico from 1911 to 1913. This unlikely revolutionary helped engineer the overthrow of dictator Porfirio Dà ­az by kick-starting the Mexican Revolution. Unfortunately for Madero, he was caught between remnants of Dà ­azs regime and the revolutionaries he unleashed and was deposed and executed in 1913. Fast Facts: Francisco Madero Known For: Father of the Mexican RevolutionBorn: Oct. 30, 1873 in Parras, MexicoParents: Francisco Ignacio Madero Hernà ¡ndez, Mercedes Gonzà ¡lez Trevià ±oDied: Died Feb. 22, 1913 in Mexico City, MexicoSpouse: Sara Pà ©rez Early Life Francisco I. Madero was born on Oct. 30, 1873, in Parras, Coahuila, Mexico, to wealthy parents—by some accounts, the fifth-richest family in Mexico. His father was Francisco Ignacio Madero Hernà ¡ndez; his mother was Mercedes Gonzà ¡lez Trevià ±o. His grandfather, Evaristo Madero, made lucrative investments and was involved in ranching, wine-making, silver, textiles, and cotton. Francisco was well educated, studying in the United States, Austria, and France. When he returned from the U.S., he was placed in charge of some family interests, including the San Pedro de las Colonias hacienda and farm, which he operated at a profit, introducing modern farming methods and improving worker conditions. In January 1903, he married Sara Pà ©rez; they had no children. Early Political Career When Bernardo Reyes, governor of Nuevo Leà ³n, brutally broke up a political demonstration in 1903, Madero became politically involved. Although his early campaigns for office failed, he funded a newspaper that he used to promote his ideas. Madero had to overcome his image to succeed as a politician in macho Mexico. He was small with a high-pitched voice, making it difficult to command respect from soldiers and revolutionaries who saw him as effeminate. He was a vegetarian and teetotaler, considered peculiar in Mexico, and an avowed spiritualist. He claimed to have contact with his dead brother Raà ºl and liberal reformer Benito Juarez, who told him to maintain pressure on Dà ­az. Dà ­az Porfirio Dà ­az was an iron-fisted dictator in power since 1876. Dà ­az had modernized the country, laying miles of train tracks and encouraging industry and foreign investment, but at a cost. The poor lived in abject misery. Miners worked without safety measures or insurance, peasants were kicked off their land, and debt peonage meant that thousands were essentially slaves. He was the darling of international investors, who commended him for â€Å"civilizing† an unruly nation. Dà ­az kept tabs on those who opposed him. The regime controlled the press, and rogue journalists could be jailed without trial for libel or sedition. Dà ­az played politicians and military men against one another, leaving few threats to his rule. He appointed all state governors, who shared the spoils of his crooked but lucrative system. Elections were rigged and only the foolish tried to buck the system. Dà ­az had fought off many challenges, but by 1910 cracks were showing. He was in his late 70s, and the wealthy class he represented worried about his successor. Years of repression meant the rural poor and urban working class loathed Dà ­az and were primed for revolution. A revolt by Cananea copper miners in 1906 in Sonora had to be brutally suppressed, showing Mexico and the world that Diaz was vulnerable. 1910 Elections Dà ­az had promised free elections in 1910. Taking him at his word, Madero organized the Anti-Re-Electionist Party to challenge Diaz and published a bestselling book titled  The Presidential Succession of 1910. Part of Maderos platform was that when Dà ­az came to power in 1876, he claimed he wouldnt seek re-election. Madero insisted that no good came from one man holding absolute power and listed Dà ­azs shortcomings, including the massacre of Maya Indians in the Yucatan, the crooked system of governors, and the Cananea mine incident. Mexicans flocked to see Madero and hear his speeches. He began publishing a newspaper,  El Anti-Re-Electionista, and secured his partys nomination. When it became clear that Madero would win, Dà ­az had most of the Anti-Re-Electionist leaders jailed, including Madero, arrested on a false charge of plotting armed insurrection. Because Madero came from a wealthy, well-connected family, Dà ­az could not simply kill him, as he had two generals who had threatened to run against him in 1910. The election was a sham and Dà ­az â€Å"won.†Ã‚  Madero, bailed out of jail by his wealthy father, crossed the border and set up shop in San Antonio, Texas. He declared the election null and void in his â€Å"Plan of San Luà ­s Potosà ­Ã¢â‚¬  and called for armed revolution. November 20 was set for the revolution to begin. Revolution With Madero in revolt, Dà ­az rounded up and killed many of his supporters. The call to revolution was heeded by many Mexicans. In the state of Morelos,  Emiliano Zapata  raised an army of peasants and harassed wealthy landowners. In the state of Chihuahua,  Pascual Orozco  and  Casulo  Herrera raised sizable armies. One of Herreras captains was ruthless revolutionary  Pancho Villa, who replaced the cautious Herrera and, with Orozco, captured cities in Chihuahua in the name of the revolution. In  February 1911, Madero returned from the U.S. Northern leaders including Villa and Orozco didnt trust him, so in March, his force swollen to 600, Madero led an attack on the federal garrison at Casas Grandes, which was a fiasco. Outgunned, Madero and his men retreated, and Madero was injured. Although it ended badly, Maderos bravery gained him respect among the northern rebels. Orozco, at that time leader of the most powerful rebel army, acknowledged Madero as leader of the revolution. Not long after the battle, Madero met  Villa  and they hit it off despite their differences. Villa knew he was a good bandit and rebel chief, but he was no visionary or politician. Madero  was a man of words, not action, and he considered Villa a Robin Hood,  just the man to oust Dà ­az. Madero allowed his men to join Villas force: His days of soldiering were done. Villa and Orozco pushed toward  Mexico City, scoring victories over federal forces along the way. In the south, Zapatas peasant army was capturing towns in his native state of Morelos, beating superior federal forces with a combination of determination and numbers. In May 1911, Zapata scored a huge, bloody victory over federal forces in the town of Cuautla. Dà ­az could see that his rule was crumbling. Dà ­az Quits Dà ­az negotiated a surrender with Madero, who generously allowed the former dictator to leave the country that month. Madero was greeted as a hero when he rode into Mexico City on June 7, 1911. Once he arrived, however, he made a series of mistakes. As interim president, he accepted Francisco Leà ³n de la Barra, a former Dà ­az crony who coalesced the anti-Madero movement. He also demobilized Orozcos and Villas armies. Maderos Presidency Madero became president in November 1911. Never a true revolutionary, Madero simply felt that Mexico was ready for democracy and Dà ­az should step down. He never intended to carry out radical changes, such as land reform. He spent much of his time as president trying to reassure the privileged class that he wouldnt dismantle the power structure left by Dà ­az. Meanwhile, Zapata, realizing that Madero would never approve real land reform, took up arms again. Leà ³n de la Barra, still interim president and working against Madero, sent  Gen. Victoriano Huerta, a brutal remnant of Dà ­azs regime, to Morelos to contain Zapata. Called back to Mexico City, Huerta began conspiring against Madero. When he became president, Maderos only remaining friend was Villa, whose army was demobilized. Orozco, who hadnt gotten the huge rewards he had expected from Madero, took to the field, and many of his former soldiers joined him. Downfall and Execution The politically naive Madero didnt realize he was surrounded by danger. Huerta was conspiring with American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson to remove Madero, as Fà ©lix Dà ­az, Porfirios nephew, took up arms along with Bernardo Reyes. Although Villa rejoined the fight in favor of Madero, he ended up in a stalemate with Orozco. Madero refused to believe his generals would turn on him. The forces of Fà ©lix Dà ­az entered Mexico City, and a 10-day standoff known as la  decena  trà ¡gica (â€Å"the tragic fortnight†) ensued. Accepting Huertas â€Å"protection,† Madero fell into his trap: He was arrested by Huerta on Feb. 18,  1913,  and executed four days later, though Huerta said he was killed when his supporters tried to free him. With Madero gone, Huerta turned on his fellow conspirators and made himself president. Legacy Although he wasnt a radical,  Francisco Madero  was the spark that set off the  Mexican Revolution. He was clever, rich, well-connected, and charismatic enough to get the ball rolling against a weakened Porfirio Dà ­az, but couldnt hold onto power once he attained it. The Mexican Revolution was fought by brutal, ruthless men, and the idealistic  Madero  was out of his depth. Still, his name became a rallying cry, especially for Villa and his men. Villa was disappointed that Madero had failed and spent the rest of the revolution looking for another politician to entrust with the future of his country. Maderos brothers were among Villas staunchest supporters. Later politicians tried and failed to unite the nation until 1920, when Alvaro Obregà ³n seized power, the first to succeed at imposing his will on the unruly factions. Decades later, Madero is seen as a hero by Mexicans, the father of the revolution that did much to level the playing field between rich and poor. He is seen as weak but idealistic, an honest, decent man destroyed by the demons he helped to unleash. He was executed before the bloodiest years of the revolution, so his image is unsullied by later events. Sources McLynn, Frank.  Villa and Zapata: A History of the Mexican Revolution.  Basic Books, 2000.Francisco Madero: President of Mexico. Encyclopedia Brittanica.Francisco Madero. Biography.com.

Informing Panasonic Free Essays

From the Information supplied In the case, Identify three Information needs of Panasonic as an organization and explain why this information would be important to managerial decision – making at the company. Three information needs of Panasonic Has the ability to create, store, share and analyze data about products, customers and suppliers in ways that were not even feasible Just a few decades ago. Ђ It had developed numerous duplicative, inconsistent and incomplete records stored in ultimate isolated databases across the enterprise It also prevented the company from making timely decisions, which diminished Panasonic flexibility and agility. We will write a custom essay sample on Informing Panasonic or any similar topic only for you Order Now Importance of information to managerial decision making Helps in making effective problem – solving decisions 2. Explain how the new information system benefits both Panasonic and its various stakeholders. Panasonic was able to save millions of dollars per year Improves Panasonic time – to- time market Reduces the time required to bring a product to market from 6 months to 1 month Reduces the amount of time required for creating and maintaining product information by 50 per cent It allowed Panasonic to move away from It’s â€Å"push† Inventory model, towards a † pull† model. Improved Its response to retailers’ orders so that its retailers have been able to cut inventory to seven days. 3. Compare and contrast the â€Å"push† and â€Å"pull† models of Information supply outlined n the case. What are the potential advantages and disadvantages of each method? O Push inventory model Information is centralized and delivered automatically to everyone who needs it, simultaneously C] The company would push products to retailers such as Best Buy and Cult City Pull inventory model Marketing and sales had to request both structured and unstructured information from numerous sources 0 vendors order products on as-needed basis o Advantages – Push – pull Disadvantages How to cite Informing Panasonic, Papers

Joesph NcNamara Essay Example For Students

Joesph NcNamara Essay Joseph D. McNamara was chief of police for the city of San Jose, California for fifteen years, as well as Kansas City, Missouri. He is recognized as an expert in criminal justice, police technology and management systems, crime prevention, and international drug control policies. He was appointed a research fellow at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, in 1991. McNamara was a pioneer in criticizing the way Police Departments and the government fought the war on crime. McNamara challenged what has long been the norm in society on how to best deal with drug use in the United States. He was also on the forefront of police corruption and abuses committed by Police Officers. Numerous articles, interviews, lectures were researched to best convey McNamaras philosophy of police technology, innovativeness and management style (leadership). McNamaras career in law enforcement spans a thirty-five-year period. He began in Harlem as a beat patrolman for the New York City Police Department. He rose through the ranks and in midcareer was appointed a criminal justice fellow at Harvard Law School, focusing on criminal justice research methodology. Following this appointment he took a leave from police work and obtained a doctorate in public administration at Harvard. Returning to duty with the NYPD, he was appointed deputy inspector in charge of crime anal ysis for New York City. In 1973 McNamara became police chief of Kansas City, Missouri, leading that department into groundbreaking research and innovative programs. In 1976 McNamara was appointed police chief for the city of San Jose, where he remained until his retirement in 1991. During his tenure, San Jose (the third-largest city in California and the eleventh largest in the United States) became the safest city in the country, despite having the fewest police per capita. The San Jose police became a model for innovation, community relations, utilization of technology, and productivity. The departments advanced training and computerization programs have been duplicated throughout the world. He has been a consultant for the United States Department of Justice, State Department, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and some of the nations largest corporations. Over the past decade, McNamara has organized four conferences at the Hoover Institution, attended by police chiefs and command officers, focusing on U. S. drug control policies.

Skinner`s Essays - Behaviorism, B. F. Skinner,

Skinner`s Influence B.F. Skinner was one of the most influential theorists in modern psychology. His work was very important and has been studied by many for years. Skinner was a very straightforward man and a very educated man. His theories have helped mankind in many ways. He has studied the behavior patterns of many living organisms. Skinner was a well-published writer. His work has been published in many journals. He also has written many books on behaviorism. His most important work was the study of behaviorism. First began by John B. Watson, behaviorism is one of the most widely studied theories today. B.F. Skinner and His Influence in Psychology B.F. Skinner was one of the most famous of the American psychologists. He was born in Pennsylvania in 1904. Skinner was the father of modern behaviorism. Skinner did not get into psychology until he was in graduate school at Harvard. He was driven to Psychology after reading about the experiments of Watson and Pavlov. He received his doctoral degree in three years and taught at the University of Minnesota and the University of Indiana and finally returned to his alma mater at Harvard. Skinner contributed to psychological behaviorism by performing experiments that linked behaviors with terms commonly used to describe mental states. Skinner was responsible for some famous experiments such as the "Skinner box". Skinner also wrote some very famous books. One of them was "The Behavior of Organisms". This book describes the basic points of his system. Another was Walden Two. This book describes a utopian society that functions on positive reinforcement. Skinner was a very productive person until his death in 1990 at the age of 86. Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that is interested in observable behavior. Skinner said, "Behaviorism is not the science of human behavior; it is the philosophy of that science"(Skinner, 1974). There are various types of behavior, such as innate behavior. Innate behaviors are certain behaviors that we are born with, such as eating when we are hungry and sleeping when we are tired. Early Life Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania on March 20, 1904 to William Arthur and Grace Madge Skinner. Skinner's home was a warm and stable place. He lived in the house he was born in until he went off to college. Skinner also had a younger brother named Edmond James Skinner, born November 6, 1906. Skinner was very fond of his brother and loved him very much. At the young age of sixteen, Edmond died of a cerebral aneurysm. Skinner was a very inventive young man. He always was making or building things, such as wagons, model airplanes, etc. He also attempted to invent a perpetual motion machine, but it failed. He also read about animals. He collected toads, lizards, and snakes. He trained pigeons to do tricks after he saw them performing one year at a fair. Training the pigeons probably was where he got his ideas of operant conditioning. He attended Susquehanna High School just like his mother and father. In his graduating class there were only eight people including him. He was a very intellectual boy. He reported that he really enjoyed school. Over the four years in high school Skinner became quite good at mathematics and reading Latin, but was weak at science. He made up for it though, because he was always performing physical and chemical experiments while he was at home. His father was an avid book collector. Skinner always had a good library of books around his house. Skinner recalled the little collection of applied psychology journals that his father had bought. Those books could have been the starting point in his psychology career. Skinner grew up in a very religious family. His grandmother often reminded him of the concept of hell. His mother once washed his mouth out with soap literally for saying a bad word. His father never punished him, but he told him of the punishments that awaited him if he ever turned out to be a criminal. Overall Skinner had a good and happy childhood. College Life After graduating high school, Skinner went to Hamilton College where he majored in English Literature and minored in Romance Languages. He was drawn toward English when he was in high school by one of his teachers named Miss Graves. She also was responsible for his enjoyment of art and sculpting. Skinner never really fit into the campus life and he was not much of a sportsman. He said "my shins were cracked in ice hockey and

Struggle Between Good and Evil †Everyman Essay

Struggle Between Good and Evil – Everyman Essay Free Online Research Papers Struggle Between Good and Evil Everyman Essay Life is a struggle between good and evil. This concept is clearly shown in the play â€Å"Everyman.† In this play, God summons Death to search out Everyman and tell him that he must make a pilgrimage to his final reckoning to decide if he could enter paradise or not based on his actions while he was alive. Death promises to catch everyman who lives outside Gods law. While searching for everyman, Death notices Everyman walking unconcerned about anything except treasures, Death orders him to stand still and asks if he had forgotten his God. Death then goes on to say that God has asked to him to tell Everyman that he must to make a long journey, and he is to take with him his â€Å"full book of accounts.† Finally, Death warns Everyman to be careful because he has done many bad deeds and only a few good ones. Everyman argues saying that death was the farthest things from his mind at that moment and tries to bribe death into giving him more time. Death then says no man can bribe me regardless of worldly goods or rank, when summoned by god all men must obey. Everyman cries in vain for more time then asks if he must go on the long journey alone. Death says that everyman is allowed to take any companions who wish to make the journey with him. Reminding him that his life is only his on loan, Death advises that he will return soon, and in the meantime Everyman has an opportunity to find any possible companions for his journey. Unable to find an accomplice for the journey, Everyman turns to Goods, whom represents worldly treasures and greed, whom he has loved all of his life. Goods listens to his plea and offers to help him until he learns that the journey is travel far and wide. Goods promptly refused saying â€Å"I am brittle and would break easily.† But Everyman argues that Goods was suppose to solve all problems. Then goods argues that he would only make Everyman look worse in the eyes of god because bringing goods would only make Everyman look greedy. Consumed in self pity, Everyman calls aloud to Good-Deeds and asks for help. Good-Deeds answers feebly, since he is lying on the cold ground, bound by sins. Good-Deeds knows of the journey everyman has to take and wants to go along, but he is too weak. Good-Deeds tells his sister, Knowledge, to stay with Everyman until he regained his strength. Knowledge then guides everyman to Confession, who gives everyman a penance. After getting the penance, Good-Deeds is able to get up from the ground, cured of sickness, and declares himself able to go on the journey and promises to help Everyman tell his good deeds before god. Then Good-Deeds also gets his friends to counsel Everyman Strength, Beauty, Discretion, and the Five Wits. Finally, Everyman is prepared to meet Death with all his friends. Then suddenly one by one his friends all leave except Good-deeds. Then an angel comes and takes Everyman to paradise and then the play ends with a doctor reminding everyone that only good deeds will help men at final judgement and no one else. Research Papers on Struggle Between Good and Evil - Everyman EssayHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows EssayThe Masque of the Red Death Room meaningsMind TravelArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Capital PunishmentComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoThe Hockey GameThe Fifth HorsemanWhere Wild and West MeetMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever Product

Organizational Behavior & Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Organizational Behavior & Leadership - Essay Example Coercive power is the power of a manager to exact fear as a form of punishment or penalty for subordinates or rank and file employees who commit some forms of misdemeanors against company rules and regulations. Referent power is a particular leader’s ability to influence subordinates through charisma or certain personal attributes that the rank and file can identify with, making them quite devoted to that leader. Referent power usually makes the manager practice more affinity with his or her subordinates that would make them more of a mentor, rather than the exacting leader or manager. While this may embolden employees to emulate their heads’ or supervisors’ mild managerial approaches, it affects the way the leader is able to apply leverage in cases where disciplinary action must be enforced. And last, but not the least, is expert power which shows the manager’s cognitive ability or knowledge in a particular field making the manager the expert from whom th e employees can gain information, so they can do their particular jobs successfully (Turner, n.d. b). The marketing manager of Employee 1 uses both the legitimate power and the reward power, because Employee 1’s manager is able to require him to work forty hours and beyond a week within the legal bounds of his authority as a manager in the organization. Likewise, Employee 1’s manager utilizes his ability in motivating employees to work hard beyond their normal office hours by reminding them of the yearly bonus, which will be given to them accordingly, should they pass and get an outstanding rating on their next evaluation. And this is what propels Employee 1 to work very hard, so he can get the bonus in order to avail of his dream vacation. Aside from utilizing the legitimate power and reward power, Employee 1’s manager also employs coercive power since all the employees in the marketing department are being constantly reminded that if they want to get the hefty bonus then they must spend more working time for the company. Although punishment for not working beyond the regular hours was not mentioned in the given scenario – the employees assigned in the marketing department are not only motivated by wanting to get the bonus but also of the fact that if they did not perform well as per the pending evaluation, they silently dread any fine or penalty that may be imposed for substandard work performance. The accounting manager of Employee 2 uses the expert power because he recognizes the ability of Employee 2 who is the only certified public accountant in the accounting department of Corporation A. And since Employee 2 is the only person who can prepare the financial statements of the company, he agreed to allow him to work in a compressed work week schedule of four days a week; so long as the expected work output is realized within the given time frame allowed by the organization. Employee 3, on the other hand, has a very positive and charismatic personality that often makes people like him. Employee 3 was made a team leader because he also has the innate ability to influence others with his ideas; they, at first, seemed sceptical to his way of thinking but at the end totally agreed with him. Employee 3 has the knack of referent power, which can inspire others to think like he does, despite the fact that he has been employed within Corporation A for only a short period of time

Joseph H Pilates Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Joseph H Pilates - Essay Example By the age of 14 he was the penultimate model, and had even begun modeling for anatomy charts. Eventually through the culmination of his own childhood and experiences, an idea began to grow in his mind. He eventually decided that everyone's modern lifestyle, bad posture, and inefficient breathing were the roots of poor health, and he would find a way to combat that effectively. He then began work on what would become known as the Pilates Method. He created a series of various exercises that would help combat these evils. Ultimately "his answer to these problems was to design a unique series of vigorous physical exercises that help to correct muscular imbalances and improve posture, coordination, balance, strength, and flexibility, as well as to increase breathing capacity and organ function. He also invented a variety of machines, based on spring-resistance, which could be used to perform these exercises"( http://www.jillianhessel.com/pilates_biography.html). He would eventually include these spring Machines into ideas such as the Cadillac and the Universal reformer. Now all that lacked was a name for his new theory of mind, which Pilates would later call contrology. The first people to embrace his methods of Body Contrlogy were dancing students.

The obligation to obey the law the normative

The obligation to obey the law the normative The obligation to obey the law the normative phenomenon in jurisprudence. Introduction: This dissertation aims to provide a general discourse into the normative jurisprudential phenomenon of political obligation. The debate surrounding the issue of whether or not there exists a general obligation to obey the law shall be defined and described, and the arguments of the different positions within this debate shall then be summarised at length, and critically analysed. The author shall then engage with this debate and provide his own opinions as to the correct approach to take when tackling the important question of whether or not there is an obligation to obey the law. Defining the scope of the debate: Before we attempt to define the scope of this debate, it is important to first understand the nature of the obligation in question, and also the characteristics of the duty arising from that obligation. The nature of the obligation: A moral or legal obligation? Jurists are not often concerned with the legal duty to obey the law, after all, such a notion is circular and meaningless; of course the law imposes a legal duty on its citizens to obey it. As Alexy[1] notes, â€Å"†¦ in the praxis of any system of dominion there is an implicit claim to correctness, which must be redeemed to anybody. A normative system which does not raise a claim to correctness explicitly or implicitly is not a legal system.† Neither can the law provide ultimate reasons for action, just as a parent will be unable to explain to their perpetually inquisitive child why they must not steal without recourse to the underlying morality of the actions involved in such a crime. As Nino[2] notes, â€Å"Legal norms do not by themselves constitutive reasons for justifying actions and decisions (like those of judges), unless they are conceived as deriving from moral judgments; normative propositions that exhibit the distinctive traits of autonomy, justificatory finality, universalisability, generality, supervinience and finality†. Therefore, rather than an assessment of the legal obligations to obey the law, most[3] jurists are instead concerned with the moral aspect of this obligation; are we always morally obliged to obey the law, and if not, in which situations may such a moral duty be deemed non-existent? The characteristics of the duty arising from this obligation: An absolute duty, or merely a prima facie one? To argue that there is an absolute duty to obey the law is to simultaneously suggest that in the case of every law, the moral reasons for obeying such law could never be outweighed by moral reasons pointing to disobedience. Such a position seems to pay no regard to notions of individual autonomy. As Menendez[4] writes, â€Å"if we consider it as providing an absolute reason, then we cannot any longer see it as part and parcel of the exercise of our practical reason, but as an alternative to it.† On the other hand, if we are to argue that the only duty that exists is a prima facie one, i.e. that a duty can be said to exist until it is rebutted by an assessment of the moral content of the law, then we are in essence suggesting that the law will only impose an obligation upon us where we as individuals are able to agree with the morality underlying the law in question. Such a position seems to pay little regard to the need of a legal system to be generally obeyed in order for it to successfully perform its roles of conflict solving and social co-ordination. As Raz[5] writes: â€Å"legal norms are reasons for acting, and not merely statements to the effect that there are reasons for acting.† The actual characteristics of the duty in question must lie somewhere between these two positions; the law must respect the processes of individual reasoning, but at the same time must impose obligations upon its citizens, at least to the extent that the system is able to retain social order and manage social conflict. As we shall observe later in this essay, different jurists have their own opinions of where the balance should be perceived to lie, although as we shall also see, this position tends to be nearer a notion of a prima facie duty, than that of an absolute duty. With these considerations in mind, let us now briefly attempt to define the scope of this jurisprudential debate. Defining the scope of the debate There is a divide amongst legal philosophers over the fundamental question of whether or not there is an obligation to obey the law. Some jurists, such as Rawls[6], Finnis[7] and Honorà ©[8], argue that the law always has prima facie authority over its citizens, i.e. that before the content of a law is assessed, it is morally right to comply- albeit that it may later be qualified. For the sake of later discussion, let us refer to this position as position 1. Other legal philosophers such as Smith[9], have rejected this position arguing that whether or not there is such a duty to obey the law depends entirely upon which law in question is being obeyed/disobeyed i.e. that only sometimes will there be a prima facie moral obligation to obey the law [Position 2]. Between these two positions lie the opinions of jurists such as Raz[10], who argues for a more or less general prima facie obligation to obey the law, and Greenawalt[11], who, as mentioned earlier, offers an interesting alternative view which tries to show how there could be legitimate authority without a moral obligation to obey the law, a theory which is co ntrary to the working assumption of this paper that the nature of the obligation in question must be a moral one. At this point in my dissertation I would like to make some more general points about the issue of whether or not there is a duty to obey the law, in particular to make some remarks about the irreconcilability of this question with the basic tenets of legal positivism. Critics of positivism have often voiced their concerns over this very point; they argue that if the claims which positivism makes are correct about the separation of laws and morals, then there can never be a moral obligation to obey the law which arises because of the law. In other words, they cannot suggest that the law must be obeyed without resorting to some other authority other than the law itself. Lon Fuller, a natural lawyer, is one of these critics, as is Feinberg[12], who argues that: â€Å"The positivist account of legal validity is hard to reconcile with the claim that valid law as such, no matter what its content, deserves our respect and general fidelity. Even if valid law is bad law, we have some obligation to obey it simply because it is law. But how can this be so if a law's validity has nothing to do with its content?† In many respects this is an argument that is hard to dispel. Certain contemporary positivists have even accepted, such as Himma[13], that positivism is irreconcilable with a notion of a duty to obey the law arising from the mere fact that it is the law. He argues that a citizen has a moral obligation to obey laws which contain norms worthy of moral obedience, such as those law prohibiting theft, murder, and even laws which are necessary to retain certain levels of human control, such as driving offences, but admits that a law creates no moral duty of obedience simply on the basis that it is the law. The result of this admission is as follows; positivists have been forced to seek out justifications for a prima facie obligation to obey the law, and have done so, quite unsuccessfully [as we shall now see], through reference to arguments based on gratitude, fairness, social contract via implied consent and utilitarian arguments pertaining to the common good. Let us now discuss the intricacies of these position 1 arguments in more detail, and critically analyse some of the justifications that have been offered by these leading jurists in support of their position. Defending position [1]: there is a general prima facie moral duty to obey the law. Four concepts have been advanced as giving rise to this duty[14]; 1] Gratitude; 2] Promise-Keeping; 3] Fairness, and; 4] Promotion of the Common Good. Let us assess each of these concepts in turn: Gratitude: The basic concept underlying this justification for a general prima facie moral duty to obey the law is as follows: In light of the great benefits which the law has conferred upon its citizens, those citizens should obey those laws, unless there is a good reason not to in a particular case. Promise-Keeping: This concept suggests that any citizen who enjoys the benefits and protections of the law commits him or herself to a social contract, which states that in return for such benefits they will obey the law. In this way a citizen is morally obliged to obey the law unless they have good reasons to the contrary. John Rawls[15] was a strong proponent of this thesis, although his formulation was somewhat more sophisticated than the reasoning above: He asserted that a society is just if it is governed by principles which people would have agreed to in a state of ignorance about their own particular position in society. He went on to argue that a natural consequence of this ‘veil of ignorance’ is a natural duty to obey the law; where the society is just (or nearly just), then there is a ‘natural duty’ of all citizens to support and further just institutions, because they would be collectively labelled right by the very people that are governed by them. Under Rawls’ theory, the duty exists independently from the promise to obey that which is required of them by an institution in a just society, because behind their ‘veil of ignorance,’ people would have agreed to it. In this way Rawls manages to justify the existence of a duty to obey, even where a pa rticular law is not particularly just, provided the basic structure of the society is reasonably just. Rawls does not advocate an absolute duty however; he argues that where a particular law exceeds certain limits of injustice, conscientious refusal is warranted, or even civil disobedience, should the injustice reach blatant levels. 3] Fairness This argument is twofold; firstly, in light of all the benefits that the law confers on its citizens, it would be unfair for a citizen not to obey them, and; secondly, a citizen has a duty to obey the law, not because that citizen owes anything to the government, but because he or she owes something to his or her fellow citizens; if everyone else complies with the law, then it is not fair for one citizen not to, whilst at the same time still receiving the benefit which that law confers. In essence therefore, under this concept, there are two tests that must be satisfied before it can be said that a prima facie moral obligation to obey the law has been established on the grounds of fairness. Firstly, the law must have generally beneficial effects; and secondly, most citizens must obey the law, so that a citizen would be taking an unfair advantage should he or she decide not to. The latter part of this test is identical to the argument offered by Dworkin[16] in justification of his general moral duty to obey the law; Dworkin asserts that a man is under a moral duty to obey the law for reasons of fairness, as outlined above, but at the same time, that same man may also be under conflicting duties other than those he owes to the state, such as to God and his own conscience; if these further duties conflict with his duties to the state, then Dworkin argues that such a man is entitled to do what he judges to be right. 4] Promotion of the Common Good: This ground for the existence of a prima facie duty is grounded in the ideals of utilitarianism; if citizens break the law then the collective welfare of society will diminish: therefore citizens are morally obliged to obey the law. The disadvantage suffered by one citizen through giving to obey the law should, under this reasoning, be balanced against the benefit conferred to society as a whole by his compliance. Finnis[17] is one of the main proponents of this theory, although his reasoning does go somewhat further than the simple utilitarian approaches offered above. Finnis argues that fulfilling legal obligations is necessary for the common good, simply because the common good is the good of individuals. Having described and understood all of the possible justifications promoted for the existence of a general prima facie moral duty to obey the law [position 1], let us now return to each of them and offer some critical analysis: Defeating Position [1]: no prima facie moral duty to obey the law can be justified via the concepts of gratitude, promise-keeping, fairness or the promotion of the common good: 1] Gratitude: Whilst gratitude in its normal everyday meaning might indeed lead to certain moral obligations, never has it been suggested that as a direct result of gratitude one should do everything that is asked of you. It is for this reason that this ground is weak, and does not adequately justify a general prima facie moral duty to obey the law. 2] Promise-Keeping: It is instantly obvious that no general prima facie duty could ever be said to exist by virtue of the basic promise-keeping rationale; unlike a party to a contract, a citizen has no real choice as to which country he or she belongs, and therefore even though that citizen may indeed receive benefits, be given the chance to vote, and be subjected to a just social structure, there is nothing embedded in the process of receiving these benefits which would lead one to automatically assume the imposition of a promise to obey. Therefore, I do not agree that a general prima facie obligation to obey the law can be derived by way of this rationale. 3] Fairness: This justification for a prima facie moral obligation to obey the law relies heavily upon an idea that all law confers benefits; an anarchist however may argue that the state produces no such benefits. Also, it is difficult to the concept of ‘fairness’ to a legal constraint which actually does no-one any good: if this type of case is frequently occurring, then the analysis of fairness as day to day co-operative transactions will break down. 4] Promotion of the Common Good: Whichever brand of utilitarianism one chooses to apply to this concept, the same conclusion results; ‘promotion of the common good’ cannot be used to justify the existence of a prima facie duty to obey the law: Act-Utilitarianism: The very mechanics of act-utilitarianism require a balancing act of all the positive and negative attributes of a certain action before deciding which course would be in the interests of the common good; to decide whether or not a duty to obey the law exists will therefore depend upon which particular law is in question. As such, there can be no prima facie obligation to obey the law via this concept. Rule-Utilitarianism: The very mechanics of rule-utilitarianism suggest that an action is right if it is required by a rule where general observance of that rule would have the best consequences. Following on from this, it makes sense that a rule requiring one to obey (with certain exceptions) would probably have better consequences than a rule requiring one always to obey. The process of formulating a comprehensive list of such exceptions would in effect require an assessment using the same mechanisms as relevant to act-utilitarianism, and as such, the same criticisms to a prima facie duty will apply. It should be noted that these criticisms do no necessarily serve to destroy the arguments of Finnis; Finnis argues that that fulfilling legal obligations is necessary for the common good, simply because the common good is the good of individuals. This is a theory that I will address in more detail at a later point in this dissertation. For now, we should simply be satisfied that any justifications based upon act- or rule- utilitarianism cannot be successful in establishing the existence of a general prima facie duty to obey the law. In essence, the criticisms of act-utilitarianism and rule-utilitarianism do not preclude there ever being a duty to obey the law, merely that the existence of such a duty can only be determined with reference to each particular law. This leads us back to our earlier discussion of ‘position 2’ jurists, those such as Smith[18], who argue that whether or not there is such a duty to obey the law depends entirely upon which law in question is being obeyed/disobeyed i.e. that only sometimes will there be a prima facie moral obligation to obey the law. Before we go on to discuss the rationales that have been offered in support of position 2, let us first take a brief look at the work of George Klosko[19], and his multiple principle theory of political obligation: George Klosko’s multiple principle theory of political obligation; combining the failing justifications of Natural Duty, Fairness and the Promotion of the Common Good, into a comprehensive justification for the existence of a general moral obligation to obey the law: George Klosko employs three concepts in order to combine the principles of Natural Duty, fairness and the promotion of the common good into a single comprehensive unifying theory. He labels these three concepts as cumulation, mutual support and overlap. He describes these three principles in the following way: ‘First is what we call cumulation. Different principles can cover different services provided by the state, and so by combining principles, a larger range of state services can be accounted for. Second is what can be referred to as mutual support. In regard to certain state functions, if a given principle on its own cannot justify compliance, the problem might possibly be overcome by more than one principle working in tandem. The third way is simple overlap. The intuition here is that, while requirements to obey given laws could be relatively weak, these can be strengthened by support of additional principles.[20]’ These three concepts admit that individually arguments of Natural duty, fairness and those argument pertaining to the common good must fail in their task of explaining and identifying a general moral duty to obey the law, but using these three principles as described above, he purports to show how these failing arguments can be combined to successfully address those limitations. The principle of culmination serves to suggest that the main limitation of these theories is their applicability to a limited area of state function, i.e. the services that the state provides to its citizens. Mutual support deals with the limitations of these individual arguments in relation to their attempt to justify a general moral obligation to obey the law, and the overlap principle deals with the respective weaknesses of each of these individual arguments, very much in the same way as we have done earlier in this essay. Klosko argues that a theory that only purports to account for one type of state function cannot be said to lead to a general duty to obey the law. He argues that state functions are social facts, and as such the failure of theorists to account for the variety of these functions in their theories is a factual failure in their arguments, a factual failure which must therefore lead to conclusions which are non-comprehensive and cannot therefore be said to give rise to the general moral duty to obey the law which they purport to do. Whilst prima facie I can see the point that Klosko is making; each of these theories do work to a certain extent, the problem being that we are always able to find many situations which exist where the theories fail to hold up to scrutiny. What Klosko has therefore tried to do is to incorporate these theories together, so that when one of them fails, another justification can step in to uphold our position of there being a general moral duty to obey the law. Whilst at first this may seem somewhat artificial, at least Klosko has tried to justify the fusion of these very different arguments by reference to state function. One cant help however feeling that some of the failures of the very individual justifications that he is using, rather than being simply due to their limited scope [by virtue of differing state functions], are so fundamental as to render any fusion of them inappropriate. By the end of this essay I shall hopefully have demonstrated that the best analysis of the question of whether or not there is a general moral duty to obey the law does not result from any of these individual arguments, neither from the fusion of them, but rather from a wholly new conceptualization of the character of the obligation and duty itself. Let us now turn to the position 2 theorists, and see if we can find some compelling arguments amongst their writing: Defending Position [2]; there may be a prima facie obligation to obey some laws, but such a duty cannot be a general one: M.B.E. Smith is commonly known as an advocate of this position. In his earlier work, ‘Is There a Prima Facie Obligation to Obey the Law?’ he performs an analysis of all the arguments which purport to support the existence of a ‘position [1]’ duty to obey the law, providing successful counter arguments for each, and finally concluding as a result these analyses that the true answer to the question of whether or not there is a general prima facie moral duty to obey the law must reside at ‘position [2];’ whether or not there is such a duty to obey the law depends entirely upon which law in question is being obeyed/disobeyed i.e. there will only sometimes be a prima facie moral obligation to obey the law. Defeating Position [2]; Simply because we cannot find adequate justification for the existence of a general prima facie moral duty to obey the law does not mean that we must, by default, resort to the conclusion that the most accurate description of this normative phenomenon is that of there only sometimes being a prima facie moral obligation to obey the law: Simply because we cannot find adequate justification for the existence of a general prima facie moral duty to obey the law does not mean that we must, by default, resort to the simplistic conclusion that the most accurate description of this normative phenomenon is that of there only sometimes being a prima facie moral obligation to obey the law. Joseph Raz, in his ‘Theory of Justice’ (1971) argues this point exactly. He does not understand why theorists have not ventured to reach a compromise between position [1] and position [2], especially in light of the fact that it seems so clear that the true answer must lie somewhere between these two extreme positions. Raz therefore proposed such a theory. The compromise between position [1] and position [2]; J. Raz, in search of a new characterisation: Earlier in this essay we discussed the character of the duty in question. We argued that whilst the duty will never be an absolute one, neither is it realistic to suggest that such a duty will be generally prima facie in character. To reiterate those arguments, for the duty to be absolute is to deny a place for individual reasoning and autonomy in a society; if every law must be obeyed regardless of any extraneous personal beliefs or opinions, then personal practical morality is denied. Likewise, if the duty was prima facie in character, the ability of the law to retain social order and manage social conflicts may come into question; Raz therefore decided that an alternative characterisation of the obligation was required, and so was born the notion of an ‘absolute reason’, or, as it has become known by certain other jurists[21], ‘the exclusionary reason.’ Let us now consider exactly what Raz understands by it: Raz’s new characterisation of the obligation to obey the law: Raz introduces the idea of there being two orders of practical reason; first-order reasons and second order reasons. These reasons are ‘practical’ in that they are the kind of reasons that may feature in an individual’s decision process when that individual is attempting to decide upon a particular course of action, i.e. reasons to act or to refrain from acting for a reason. Second order reasons are higher in priority that first-order reasons, and as such, if two such reasons should come into conflict, it will be the second-order reason that shall prevail. Second-order reasons however might themselves be trumped by what Raz describes as ‘cancelling-reasons’, reasons which might exist within the context of the particular decision process at hand which could render the secondary-reasons void. The jurisdiction of a ‘cancelling-reason’, i.e. its scope within the context of a particular decision, will be affected by what Raz calls ‘scope -affecting reasons.’ Exclusionary reasons are second-order reasons of a special kind; whereas all the other types of reasons may be distinguished by their ground, exclusionary reasons have a special normative role to play in the whole practical deliberative process, and it is this normative role by which exclusionary reasons should be distinguished. In effect therefore, ‘A second-order reason is any reason to act or to refrain from acting for a reason, whereas an exclusionary reason is a second-order reason to refrain from acting for some reason.[22]’ Exclusionary reasons exclude other secondary reasons from playing their normal role in the deliberative process, in effect cancelling these otherwise valid reasons from the decision making process. To best understand the nature of these exclusionary reasons, and how they operate within the practical decision making process, let us follow through Raz’s very argument for the existence of these special secondary reasons: Raz commences his argument with an analysis of a couple of examples of the decision-making process. The first example scenario involves an agent who refuses to accept a business deal on the basis that he is too tired to think about whether or not the deal could be advantageous to him. Raz explains how the decision making process in this example did not involve the processing of the actual fact pertaining to the deal in question, but rather on the basis that she realised that she was too tired to perform a thorough assessment, and as such decided to play safe and decline. In this case, the first order reasons would be the facts relating to the deal, and these are trumped by the second-order reason of tiredness. Raz then proposes the situation where a colleague of the agent, another like-minded agent of similar financial status, decides to accept an identical deal; this may prove to be an adequate reason for the agent, despite her tiredness and inability to assess all the intricacies o f the deal, to accept the deal. In such a case, we could say that the fact that the other agent accepted the deal serves as a reason for her to accept it herself. This reason does not outweigh the tiredness reason, nor does it undermine it, but it does result in a different outcome to her decision-making process. The second example scenario offered by Raz is as follows: ‘While serving in the army Jeremy is ordered by his commanding officer to appropriate and use a van belonging to a certain tradesman. Therefore he has reason to appropriate the van. His friend urges him to disobey the order pointing to weighty reasons for doing so. Jeremy does not deny that his friend may have a case. But, he claims, it does not matter whether he is right or not. Orders are orders and should be obeyed even if wrong, even if no harm will come from disobeying them. That is what it means to be a subordinate’[23]. According to Raz, the order given to Jeremy by his commanding officer should be regarded as an exclusionary reason in that it excludes the reasons offered to him by his friend, from featuring in his practical deliberative process, despite the fact that these reasons were sound in nature. This is what Raz means by ‘exclusionary reasons.’ As stated above, these reasons are disting uishable by virtue of their normative role, a role which Raz describes as â€Å"†¦reasons for performing certain actions, and, other things being equal, the fact that they are excluded by an exclusionary reason merely means that they should not be complied with, not that they should not be conformed to. The best course is if they are indirectly obeyed, i.e. if the action they indicate is performed for some other, independent, reason.[24]’ Let us now apply this characterization to our general duty to obey the law. The first thing which becomes evident is that the duty to obey the law can itself be described as an exclusionary reason; when we state that someone is under a duty to obey the law, we are effectively stating that in the decision process of that person, reliance on extra-legal considerations in the formulation of the decision of whether or not to act in such a way has no actual place in that process. Such extra-legal considerations are thus excluded from the practical decision making process by the very existence of a duty to obey the law. One might argue here that an analysis of the duty in this way yields no different results to that of the characterization of the duty as an absolute one. In fact, whilst the result may very well be the same, the description of the duty as an exclusionary reason does give respect to the existence of a balancing decision making process, in a way which an absolute conception would not; as Menendez[25] writes, â€Å"the duty to obey the law, when conceptualized as an exclusionary reason, precludes direct weighting and balancing, but it does not rule out a margin of exercise of practical reason. This is enough to render compatible the obligation with individual autonomy.† Raz’s picture of the duty to obey the law is certainly the most convincing to date; although somewhat contrived, it does manage to reconcile legal and moral duty in a way which allows the law to retain a legitimate authority, whilst respecting the fact that human beings are essentially autonomous in their decision making. Let us now see if we can find any criticisms of Raz’s

ABO Blood Test to Determine Paternity Essay

The ABO blood test was used in this lab to test which of the three fathers is the blood father of Andrea. The blood test that is closely related to the blood type of Andrea is the respective blood father. Each blood sample was mixed with synthetic anti-A, anti-B, and anti-Rh to test for clotting or not. Father #3 and Andrea were the only subjects tested with Rh positive with all other subjects Rh negative, resulting in Father #3 as the blood father. Introduction Table 1: Possible Child Blood Types Table 1: Possible Child Blood Types The purpose of this lab is to determine which father is the blood father of the child. The mother, Andrea, and three other fathers were tested by their blood type and Rh factor to determine the blood father. The ABO blood test determines the blood type of subjects by the alleles IA, IB, and i. The blood alleles IA and IB are codominant over i, meaning both of the alleles are dominant over the recessive i. The antigen with the Rh factor is determined by D as dominant or d as recessive, with the Rh positive factor as dominant and the Rh negative factor as recessive. In the ABO blood test, synthetic blood samples and synthetic serum of Anti-A, Anti-B, and Anti-Rh are mixed respectively into a blood typing slide. If agglutination occurs as the samples are mixed, then the subject’s blood type is the respective A, B, or Rh factor. The father with the most closely related alleles with Andrea is the blood father by testing June, the mother, Andrea, and all the fathers. Methods The container vials with synthetic blood samples each are respectively the mother, the child, Father #1, Father #2, and Father #3. Each of the respective blood samples are used once ever round in the experiment. One of the blood samples is dropped into the blood typing slide under three labels; A, B, and Rh. After applying the blood sample, a drop of synthetic serum blue (anti-A) is dropped into well A. Synthetic serum yellow (anti-B) is dropped into well B. Synthetic serum clear (anti-Rh) is dropped into well Rh. Using the respective colored toothpicks, each well is stirred and checked for agglutination (clotting). The blood typing slide is washed and re-used for the next blood sample. Results Table 2: ABO Test results In Table 2, only Andrea and Father #3 showed agglutination when anti-Rh was mixed with their blood sample. The June and Andrea both showed clotting with anti-B serum. The child showed agglutination in all of the following serums. Table 3: Blood Group Determination Table Table 3 resulted with Andrea’s blood type assumed as AB negative. Father #3 was the only one with a positive blood type. The Child has a Rh group of Dd containing the recessive allele d due to her mother’s Rh group being homozygous recessive dd. Father #3 had a Rh group of D_ followed with an uknown allele because no known factor can support an exact second allele. Discussion Father #3 is the blood father of Andrea because in accordance to the lab results. Andrea was tested to have a blood type of AB positive and the mother as B negative. The only possible blood types of a blood father from the results are blood types AB positive or A positive. Only father #3 showed a matching blood type to the following possible blood types. The lab results supported the fact that father #3’s blood type was most closely related to Andrea’s blood type. References Q, R. (2010, January 5). Paternity testing using ABO blood types is impossible. Retrieved 2010, from Boston Paternity; The DNA Solution Blog: http://www.bostonpaternity.com/blog/paternity-testing-using-abo-blood-types-is-impossible/ Biology 240 Lab Handout, Lab 4: Multiple alleles and the ABO blood type

Yoga as an ancient spiritual practice

Abstract- This paper examines yoga as an ancient spiritual practice in India, the medical uses for yoga and the practice of it in the United States. This study reveals how yoga can be used to help those suffering from asthma and other pulmonary diseases; in addition, to alleviate constipation. There are a variety of body stretches and breathing exercises performed in yoga; furthermore, yoga has been used as a relaxation technique for many. There is a misconception in the practice of yoga in the United States. It is practiced as a method to relieve one self of the stresses caused by everyday life and meditation is used to temporarily block thoughts to encourage a deeper sense of temporary relaxation. Traditional yogis have been insulted by the interpretation of yoga in the West. Critics argue that yoga as a ‘pop' fitness trend has taken yoga out of its spiritual context and arranged it in a modern health club setting. Ancient yoga that is conducted in India differs greatly in its practices as compared to Western yoga as a fitness trend. The methods used to obtain information for this topic include: participant observation, three interviews were conducted; one with an American Yoga instructor, two were with American Yoga participants, in addition, extensive library research was conducted on Yoga. Introduction: The history of yoga in Ancient India dates back approximately five thousand years. It has been acknowledged in the United States since the early1960's. The many resources I have used to collect the data for this study gave inconsistent information pertaining to yoga's date of origin; therefore, I calculated an estimate. Its place of origin has been verified as India. â€Å"Yoga is an ancient Sanskrit word meaning union† (Harvard Heath Letter 1998:24). â€Å"When a mans union or existential contact with Being becomes [balanced and complete] he is transformed into a dynamic personality. Yoga may be defined as the art of harmonious and creative living. It stresses the need for the balanced growth of personality†¦it warns against extreme tendencies which mislead people into lopsided development.† (Chaudhuri 1974:37) It continues to describe such â€Å"lopsided† personalities as people who are unbalanced. For example, one who is overly social may be suppressing their own emotions, those who overly exercise the muscles may be under developing the brain, and those who over-exercise the brain may be neglecting the body. Yoga is an everyday concept in Indian culture; moreover, Sanskrit is the language of yoga. Yoga has been a source of religious and philosophical movements throughout history. â€Å"The basic issue of human suffering include moral, religious, and psychological problems, has been traced to one ultimate cause†¦self estrangement, alienation from existence, loss of contact with being, emotional conflicts, social discord, political wars, all of these†¦flow from mans loss of contact with the ground of existence.† (Bose 1996:48) Alienation and depression lead to emotional conflict; consequently, it may produce a feeling of restlessness; moreover, stress. Ancient yoga has called out to alleviate such problems and alleviate the anxiety caused by stress. It taught people how to take care of their minds and bodies; in addition, how to relate to other people. It also taught people what to eat and how to exist in nature. The majority of traditional yogis are vegetarian. Ancient yoga's goal was to emphasize complete spirituality and to be all to your human potential. â€Å"It emphasizes the need for balanced integration of the physical, emotional, intellectual, ethical, and religious aspects of personality† (Chaudhuri 1974:38). In the United States yoga is mainly practiced as relaxation therapy. Relaxation therapy has been used as â€Å"a broad term used to describe a number of techniques that promote stress reduction, the elimination of tension through the body, and a calm and peaceful state of mind† (Martin 2002:1). Stress and tensions experienced through everyday life have been linked to many illnesses including but not limited to: heart disease, high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, irritable bowel syndrome, ulcers, anxiety disorders, insomnia, and substance abuse. â€Å"Stress can also trigger a number of physical symptoms including nausea, headache, hair loss, fatigue, and muscle pain† (Martin 2002:2). In addition to the benefits of yoga â€Å"it can also be tailored to people of different ages and different fitness levels. An athletic person will likely opt to do more [yoga] postures and hold them for longer than someone who is just beginning [in addition] many people use yoga as a complement to a sport or aerobic activity†¦stretches can [also] be done as a warm up [prior to a work out]† (Harvard Health Letter 1998:3). In reference to biomedical effectiveness â€Å"Yoga has been used to alleviate problems associated with high blood pressure, high cholesterol, migraine headaches, asthma, shallow breathing, backaches, constipation, diabetes, menopause, multiple sclerosis, varicose veins, carpal tunnel syndrome, and many chronic illnesses† (Dupler 2002:2). In this study I chose to focus on asthma and constipation due to the fact, there was more medical evidence established to confirm the practice of yoga assisting those health issues. Methods: The data for this study was obtained by researching the broad topic of yoga. The topic was then broken down into sub-groups including: medical aspects of yoga, ancient history of yoga, American yoga, and yoga for relaxation. In addition, interviews were conducted. One interviewee was an American yoga instructor; two others were American yoga participants. Each interviewee attended the same class. Moreover, I practice yoga and added my opinions and participant observations through the use of it. Paula was the yoga instructor I interviewed. When I asked her the question â€Å"Why did you decided to teach yoga?† she replied â€Å"I like helping people but I don't agree with the practice of biomedicine†. In response to my question â€Å"Why don't you agree with biomedicine?† She replied â€Å"It seems too rigid and rushed, [moreover] people don't seem to get the medical help they really need and most of the help they do receive is only a temporary fix.† Paula was a student at the Iyengar Yoga National Association of the United States for approximately three years. She has been teaching yoga as a certified teacher for approximately two years. To learn more about the Iyengar School of Yoga I looked it up on the internet and learned that the assessment for certification included: demonstrated practice of Asanas, a written exam, and demonstrated teachings. In the demonstrated practice of Asanas (poses) portion the students are expected to show a working knowledge of all of the poses in the syllabus for the assessment level, the written exam asked questions regarding the required reading on the syllabus as well as theoretical questions regarding teaching such as sequencing concepts, medical modifications etc. Their teaching skills in areas such as understanding of the pose and the knowledge of basic instruction, clarity of instruction, pacing, interaction with and manner toward the students, demonstration skills, observation of class and appropriate corrections, are critically evaluated before certification is granted. After passing the assessment all teachers are required to renew their certification bi-annually (http://www. iynaus.org/). Results: Through participant observation I noted that the environment in which American yoga is practiced is usually quiet, dimly lit, comfortable in temperature, and spacious. Floor mats are provided to comfort the participant during the session. Soft music is played in the background and a candle or incense it burned (depending on the instructor). The instructor speaks softly and verbally guides the group through a variety of asanas (poses). The instructor often moves about the room correcting participants' postures when appropriate. Relaxation and meditation is promoted through verbal suggestions and chants of Om. Moreover, each session last for approximately one hour. Linda was one of the participants I interviewed. She is married, has two school aged children, recently moved to the area, and is not employed. When I asked her who she chooses to participate in Yoga she replied â€Å"I don't work and the children are in school all day so yoga and [the other activities she engages in] gives me something to look forward to. I have also met many nice women that I have become friends with. I am not from the area so it has given me more of a sense of community.† Michelle was the final participant I interviewed. Michelle leads a very busy lifestyle. She is married with no children and works 50 hours per week; moreover, commutes one hour each way to work. In response to the question of why she chooses to practice yoga she responded, â€Å"it helps me clear my mind and forget everything that is going on in my life outside of this room, [it also] gives me an energy boost for the rest of the day or if I take an evening class it helps me sleep better.à ¢â‚¬  I also asked Michelle â€Å"How do you know yoga really helps you?† She revealed that â€Å"I used to suffer from anxiety disorders and had difficulty falling to sleep at night because so much was on my mind, after taking yoga classes for a few months I started to relax more and sleep better.† From my personal participant observations I agreed with much of what Michelle had concluded through her practices of yoga. I am a full time student and own and operate a small business. Moreover, there are additional things that life demands of me. I have been practicing yoga for approximately two years. I began practicing yoga because my fitness facility offered it. As I began to practice it weekly I noticed more movement and flexibility in my body. Then, I began to notice my mind that was once overloaded with stress from deadlines that needed to be met, became more relaxed. Moreover, my sleeping pattern became more regular and my mind and body felt more at ease, all of which I a ttribute to overall stress reduction. Yoga in America has been advertised as a means for relaxation and to free the self of stress. It is practiced in health clubs and spas in groups headed by a yoga instructor. There is no formal training an instructor must undergo to teach yoga in the U.S. There are seminars that can be completed from one week to six months; respectively, to obtain certification; nevertheless, one does not need certifications to teach a yoga class. In contrast, Ancient yoga's idea is that â€Å"of freedom in spiritual self expression, yoga does not believe in any standardized path for all to follow† (Chaudhuri 1974:21). Yoga is practiced in private or with a teacher (a yogi, male or yogin, female). â€Å"A yogi [yogin] is one who does not merely talk philosophy but lives philosophy, he does not simply have faith in God but experiences God† (Chaudhuri 1974:19). One becomes a yogi when his/her teacher gives permission to teach. The teacher (guru) guides the student through a spiritual path to self-realization. It is not until then, a student becomes a yogi. The guru's teachings can last for years before a student is ready to teach the yoga philosophy. Energy is said to be passed from the guru to the student or yogi. This process is the natural conversion practiced in India. â€Å"Yoga is not a matter of belief; it is the inner growth of consciousness which results in direct insight into the heart of reality [it is a] progressive realization of the full freedom of the inner spirit† (Chaudhuri 1974:22). The physical exercises and breathing exercises do not belong to the essence of yoga they are the â€Å"bodily preparation entitling one to take up higher phases of yogic practices such as concentration, meditation, and the like (Chaudhuri 1974:21). In conclusion, it appears that yoga practiced in America is in fact a preparation effort; moreover, the first stage in ancient yoga. In the American practices of yoga the physical exercises and breathing exercises are what is emphasized; resulting, in a relaxed state of mind and body. In addition to American yoga being practiced for relaxation and stress reduction, there has been a discovery that it is also used to help treat chronic illnesses that biomedicine has had difficulty managing. In this study I chose to focus on asthma and constipation due to the fact, there was more medical evidence established to confirm the practice of yoga assisting those health issues. Approximately ten-million Americans have asthma. It usually begins in childhood; although, it may also begin to show its signs in adult life (Dupler 2002:1). â€Å"In most cases asthma is caused by inhaling an allergen that sets off the chain of biomedical and tissue changes leading to airway inflammation, broncho- constriction, and wheezing. â€Å"Studies have shown that yoga significantly helps asthma sufferers, with exercises specifically designed to expand the lungs, promote deep breathing, and reduce stress† (Dupler 2002:2). Breathing exercises will strengthen and relax the muscles of the lungs. Controlling the breathing helps the respiratory muscles and lungs to develop and breathe more slowly reducing stress on the airways; consequently, reducing the chance of an asthma attack. Being able to control and focus breathing patterns also aids in the awareness in a change in regular breathing; in short, the onset of asthma attacks. Yoga has also been useful in the alleviation of abdominal gas; moreover, constipation. â€Å"Constipation is an acute or chronic condition in which bowel movements occur less often than usual†¦it is one of the most common medical complaints in the U.S† (Haggerty 2002:1). It can occur to any one at any age, although, it's more common among women. While conducting my interview with Paula, the yoga instructor, I asked her if she was aware of any medical uses for yoga. She informed me of several positions to relieve constipation discomfort. The first position is called a â€Å"knee-chest† position. It involves: * Standing straight with arms at the sides * Lifting the right knee toward the chest * Grasping the right ankle with the left hand * Pulling the legs as close to the chest as possible * Holding the position for about 10 seconds * And repeating those steps with the alternate leg The second position was called â€Å"cobra†. It involves the following steps: * Lying on the stomach with the legs together * Placing the palms just below the shoulders, keeping the elbows close to the body * While inhaling lift the head and chest off of the floor while keeping your face forward, also keep the naval in contact with the floor * The goal is to stretch and look as far upward as possible to elongate the abdomen * The cobra position must be held for about 8 seconds * Exhale as you lower the chest toward the floor In the interview with the yoga instructor, Paula remarked that, â€Å"Too often today when we have a headache we take a pill or something to stop the pain and discomfort. We try killing the pain instead of realizing and coming to an understanding that there's some thing causing the headache. Some people work too hard and try to juggle too much, maybe they ate something wrong for lunch, or are holding in negative emotions. Instead of realizing that stress in life exists we try to numb everything.† In my personal practices with yoga it has assisted me in the following: allowing full concentration, sleeping more soundly, increasing my energy level, and allowing my creativity to flow better. Linda one of the participants revealed that she suffers from asthma and she has tried a variety of medicines and in conjunction with Theophylline, her medication, yoga helps her in controlling her breathing. Her doctor also remarked about how beneficial yoga has been to her condition. Discussion: In terms of the American culture, yoga provides participants with a sense of relaxation that is necessary in such a busy society. Today, people are trying to balance many activities; including but not limited to, work, family, education, and other personal activities. Moreover, yoga helps provide many people with a social system to incorporate within. There is a misconception in the practice of yoga in the United States. It is practiced as a method to relieve one self of the stresses caused by everyday life and meditation is used to temporarily block thoughts to encourage a deeper sense of temporary relaxation. Traditional yogis have been insulted by the interpretation of yoga in the West. Critics argue that yoga as a ‘pop' fitness trend has taken yoga out of its spiritual context and arranged it in a modern health club setting. Ancient yoga that is conducted in India differs greatly in its practices as compared to Western yoga as a fitness trend. Yoga may also be compared with Christian healing groups and metaphysical groups in the following ways: each is practiced within a group setting and there is a call to a higher power. Each believes that â€Å"health and healing come from tapping into a powerful life force†¦this type of healing is based upon a wholly immanent power, fully within the reach of each believer† (McGuire 1998:79). â€Å"They believe that the key to the desired wholeness is mental more than purely spiritual†¦a healthy mind will help you have a healthy body† (McGuire 1998:81). The ancient practices of yoga highlight spirituality. â€Å"A yogi is one who does not merely talk philosophy but lives philosophy, he does not simply have faith in God but experiences God† (Chaudhuri 1974:19). Many Americans think of yoga as a religion and have reacted to it negatively. Some think that if they practice yoga then they would be undermining their personal religious beliefs. â€Å"Instead of undermining their personal faith, Yoga can actually deepen it†¦some yoga instructors are more religious than others, but Yoga itself is a tool for exploring the depth of our human nature†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Feurstein 1996:1).